INDIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANCIENT SCIENCE

CONTENTS :


1.1 ASTRONOMY
1.2 LINGUISTICS
1.3 MATHEMATICS
1.4 MEDICINE AND SURGERY
1.5 PHILOSOPHICAL DISCUSSIONS
1.5.1 ATOMISM
1.5.2 LIGHT
2 TECHNOLOGY
2.1 CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY
2.2 CIVIL ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE
2.3 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
2.4 SHIPBUILDING AND NAVIGATION
3 FINE ARTS
4 GAMES AND SPORTS



ASTRONOMY

Main article: Indian astronomy

Further information: Hindu cosmology and Jyotisha

Classical Indian astronomy documented in literature spanning the Maurya (Vedanga Jyotisha, ca. 5th century BCE) to the Mughal (such as the 16th century Kerala school) periods.
The first named authors writing treatises on astronomy emerge from the 5th century CE, the date when the classical period of Indian astronomy can be said to begin. Besides the theories of Aryabhata in the Aryabhatiya and the lost Arya-siddhānta, we find the Pancha-Siddhāntika of Varahamihira. From this time on, we find a predominance of geocentric models, and possibly heliocentric models, in Indian astronomy, in contrast to the "Merucentric" astronomy of Puranic, Jaina and Buddhist traditions whose actual mathematics has been largely lost and only fabulous accounts remain.[citation needed]
The astronomy and the astrology of ancient India (Jyotisha) is based upon sidereal calculations, although a tropical system was also used in a few cases. For example, Uttarayana (Uttarāyana उत्तरायण) was determined according to a tropical system in the Mahabharata, or by Lagadha in the Vedanga Jyotisha. But even then, sidereal astronomy was the mainstay. Now, even Uttarāyana is determined according to the sidereal system of Hindus.

Linguistics

Main articles: Vyakarana and Tolkāppiyam

Further information: Panini (grammarian), Bhartrihari, and History of linguistics
Linguistics (along with phonology, morphology, etc.) first arose among Indian grammarians who were attempting to catalog and codify Sanskrit's rules. Modern linguistics owes a great deal to these grammarians, and to this day, for example, key terms for compound analysis such as bahuvrihi are taken from Sanskrit.
Linguistics was pursued in ancient India for many centuries. The Sanskrit grammar of Pāṇini (c. 520 – 460 BCE), who is often considered the founder of linguistics, contains a particularly detailed description of Sanskrit morphology, phonology and roots, evincing a high level of linguistic insight and analysis. In particular, he is most famous for formulating the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology in the text Aṣṭādhyāyī. His sophisticated grammar of Sanskrit continues to be in use to this day. The Indian grammatical tradition is believed to have been active for many centuries before Pāṇini, and anticipates by millennia certain developments in the West, such as the phoneme and the generation of word forms by the successive application of morphological rules for example. (Outside of India, the phoneme seems to have been discovered and forgotten several times through history.)
The South Indian linguist Tolkāppiyar (c. 3rd century BCE) wrote the Tolkāppiyam, the grammar of Tamil, which is also still in use today. Bhartrihari (c. 450 – 510) was another important author on Indic linguistic theory. He theorized the act of speech as being made up of three stages: conceptualization by the speaker; performance of speaking; and comprehension by the interpreter. The work of Pāṇini, and the later Indian linguist Bhartrihari, had a significant influence on many of the foundational ideas proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure, professor of Sanskrit, who is widely considered the father of modern structural linguistics.


MATHEMATICS

Main article: Indian mathematics

Main authors of classical Indian mathematics (400 CE to 1200 CE) are scholars like Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II. Indian mathematicians made early contributions to the study of the decimal number system, zero, negative numbers, arithmetic, and algebra. In addition, trigonometry, having evolved in the Hellenistic world and having been introduced into ancient India through the translation of Greek works, was further advanced in India, and, in particular, the modern definitions of sine and cosine were developed there. These mathematical concepts were transmitted to the Middle East, China, and Europe and led to further developments that now form the foundations of many areas of mathematics.


MEDICINE AND SURGERY

MAIN ARTICLE: AYURVEDA

Ayurvedic practice was flourishing during the time of Buddha (around 520 BC) , and in this period the Ayurvedic practitioners were commonly using Mercuric-sulphur combination based medicines. An important Ayurvedic practitioner of this period was Nagarjuna, a Buddhist herbologist, famous for inventing various new drugs for the treatment of ailments.[citation needed] Nagarjuna was accompanied by Surananda, Nagbodhi, Yashodhana, Nityanatha, Govinda, Anantdev, Vagbhatta etc.

Sushruta (also spelt Susruta or Sushrutha) (c. 6th century BC) was the first surgeon in the world who lived in ancient India and is the author of the book Sushruta Samhita, in which he describes over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and classifies human surgery in 8 categories. He lived and taught and practiced his art on the banks of the Ganga in the area that corresponds to the present day city of Varanasi in North India.
Plastic surgery developed in India.

During the regime of Chandragupta Maurya (375-415 AD), Ayurveda was part of mainstream Indian medical techniques, and continued to be so until the colonisation by the British. Chakrapani Dutta (DuttaSharma) was a Vaid Brahman of Bengal who wrote books on Ayurveda such as "Chakradutta" and others. Chakrapani Dutta was the Rajavaidya of Great King Laxman Sen {some says rajVaid of King Nayapala (1038 - 1055)}. It is believed by some practitioners that Chakradutta is the essence of Ayurveda.

Ayurveda has always been preserved by the people of India as a traditional "science of life", despite increasing adoption of European medical techniques during the time of British rule. For several decades the reputation and skills of the various Ayurvedic schools declined markedly as Western medicine and Western-style hospitals were built. However, beginning in the 1970s, a gradual recognition of value of Ayurveda returned, and today Ayurvedic hospitals and practitioners are flourishing throughout all of India. As well, the production and marketing of Ayurvedic herbal medicines has dramatically increased, as well as scientific documentation of benefits. Today, Ayurvedic medicines are available throughout the world.


Philosophical Discussions

Further information: Indian physics

A number of Indian theories on physics have attracted the attention of Indologists. Veteran Australian Indologist Arthur Llewellyn Basham has concluded that:
"They were brilliant imaginative explanations of the physical structure of the world, and in a large measure, agreed with the discoveries of modern physics."


ATOMISM

Further information: Indian atomism

The concept of the atom in ancient India derives from the classification of the material world in five basic elements by Indian philosophers. This classification existed since Vedic times (c. 1500 BCE). The elements were the earth (prithvi), fire (agni), air (vayu), water (jaal) and ether or space (aksha). The elements were associated with human sensory perceptions: smell, touch, vision, taste and ether/space respectively. Later, Buddhist philosophers replaced ether/space with life, joy and sorrow.

Ancient Indian philosophers believed that all elements except ether were physically palpable and hence comprised of minuscule particles. The smallest particle, which could not be subdivided, was called paramanu in Sanskrit (shortened to parmanu), from parama (ultimate or beyond) and anu (atom). Thus, "paramanu" literally means "beyond atom" and this was a concept at an abstract level which suggested the possibility of splitting atoms, which is now the source of atomic energy. However, the term "atom" should not be conflated with the concept of atom as it is understood today.

The 6th century BCE Indian philosopher Kanada was the first person who went deep systematically in such theorization. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana, a contemporary of Buddha, also propounded the ideas of atomic constitution of the material world. All these were based on logic and philosophy and lacked any empirical basis for want of commensurate technology.

Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage:
"Two systems of Hindu thought propound physical theories suggestively similar to those of Greece. Kanada, founder of the Vaisheshika philosophy, held that the world was composed of atoms as many in kind as the various elements. The Jains more nearly approximated to Democritus by teaching that all atoms were of the same kind, producing different effects by diverse modes of combinations. Kanada believed light and heat to be varieties of the same substance; Udayana taught that all heat comes from the sun; and Vachaspati, like Newton, interpreted light as composed of minute particles emitted by substances and striking the eye."


LIGHT

Further information: Theories about light

In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th – 5th century BCE, developed theories on light. According to the Samkhya school, light is one of the five fundamental "subtle" elements (tanmatra) out of which emerge the gross elements. The atomicity of these elements is not specifically mentioned and it appears that they were actually taken to be continuous.
According to the Vaisheshika school, motion is defined in terms of the movement of the physical atoms and it appears that it is taken to be non-instantaneous. Light rays are taken to be a stream of high velocity of tejas (fire) atoms. The particles of light can exhibit different characteristics depending on the speed and the arrangements of the tejas atoms. Around the first century, the Vishnu Purana refers to sunlight as "the seven rays of the sun".
Later in 499, Aryabhata, who proposed a heliocentric solar system of gravitation in his Aryabhatiya, wrote that the planets and the Moon do not have their own light but reflect the light of the Sun.
The Indian Buddhists, such as Dignāga in the 5th century and Dharmakirti in the 7th century, developed a type of atomism that is a philosophy about reality being composed of atomic entities that are momentary flashes of light or energy. They viewed light as being an atomic entity equivalent to energy, similar to the modern concept of photons, though they also viewed all matter as being composed of these light/energy particles.


TECHNOLOGY


CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY


Main article: History of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent
Ancient India’s development in chemistry was not confined at an abstract level like physics, but found development in a variety of practical activities.
Metallurgy has remained central to all civilizations, from the Bronze Age and the Iron Age, and later. It is believed that the basic idea of smelting reached ancient India from Mesopotamia and the Near East. In ancient India, the science of smelting reached a high level of refinement and precision. In the 5th century BCE, the Greek historian Herodotus observed that the:

"Indian and the Persian army used arrows tipped with iron."
The ancient Romans used armour and cutlery made of Indian iron. In India itself, certain objects testify to the high level of metallurgy. An iron pillar believed to be cast in the Gupta period around the 5th century stands by the side of Qutub Minar World heritage site in Delhi. It is 7.32 m tall, with a diameter of 40 cm at the base tapering to 30 cm at the top, and is estimated to weigh 6 tonnes. Standing in the open for last 1500 years, it has withstood wind, heat and water without rusting, except for very minor natural erosion. This kind of rust-proof iron was not possible until iron and steel was discovered a few decades before.

An influential Indian metallurgist and alchemist was Nagarjuna (b. 931). He wrote the treatise Rasaratnakara that deals with preparations of rasa (mercury) compounds. It gives a survey of the status of metallurgy and alchemy in the land. Extraction of metals such as silver, gold, tin and copper from their ores and their purification were also mentioned in the treatise.

Ancient India's advanced chemical science also finds expression in activities like distillation of perfumes and fragrant ointments, manufacturing of dyes and chemicals, preparation of pigments and colours, and polishing of mirrors. Paintings found on walls of Ajanta and Ellora World Heritage sites still look fresh after 1000 years, further testifying to the high level of science.

Will Durant wrote in Our Oriental Heritage:
"Something has been said about the chemical excellence of cast iron in ancient India, and about the high industrial development of the Gupta times, when India was looked to, even by Imperial Rome, as the most skilled of the nations in such chemical industries as dyeing, tanning, soap-making, glass and cement... By the sixth century the Hindus were far ahead of Europe in industrial chemistry; they were masters of calcinations, distillation, sublimation, steaming, fixation, the production of light without heat, the mixing of anesthetic and soporific powders, and the preparation of metallic salts, compounds and alloys. The tempering of steel was brought in ancient India to a perfection unknown in Europe till our own times; King Porus is said to have selected, as a specially valuable gift from Alexander, not gold or silver, but thirty pounds of steel. The Moslems took much of this Hindu chemical science and industry to the Near East and Europe; the secret of manufacturing "Damascus" blades, for example, was taken by the Arabs from the Persians, and by the Persians from India."


[edit] Civil engineering and architecture

Main article: Indian architecture

Further information: Indus Valley Civilization

India’s urban civilization is traceable to Mohenjodaro and Harappa, now in Pakistan, where planned urban townships existed 5000 years ago. From then on, Indian architecture and civil engineering continued to develop, and was manifestated temples, palaces and forts across the Indian peninsula and neighbouring regions. Architecture and civil engineering was known as sthapatya-kala, literally "the art of constructing".

During the Kushan Empire and Mauryan Empire, Indian architecture and civil engineering reached regions like Baluchistan and Afghanistan. Statues of Buddha were cut out, covering entire mountain cliffs, like in Buddhas of Bamyan, Afghanistan. Over a period of time, ancient Indian art of construction blended with Greek styles and spread to Central Asia.

On the east, Buddhism took Indian style architecture and civil engineering to places like Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Burma, China, Korea and Japan. Angkor Wat is a testimony to the contribution of Indian civil engineering and architecture to Cambodian Khmer heritage.
In mainland India, there are several ancient architectural marvels, including World Heritage Sites like Ajanta, Ellora, Khajuraho, Konark, Mahabodhi Temple, Sanchi, Brihadisvara Temple and Mahabalipuram.

Production technology

Mechanical and production technology of ancient India ensured processing of natural produce and their conversion into merchandise of trade, commerce and export. A number of travelers and historians (including Megasthanes, Ptolemy, Faxian,Xuanzang, Marco Polo, Al Baruni and Ibn Batuta) have indicated a variety of items, which were produced, consumed and exported around that society's "known world" by the ancient Indians. The spinning wheel was invented in India, as was the practice of dying cloth with indigo.

SHIPBUILDING AND NAVIGATION

Main article: Indian maritime history

Further information: Lothal and Indus Valley Civilization: Trade
The science of shipbuilding and navigation were well-known to ancient Indians. Sanskrit and Pali texts are replete with maritime references. Indians, particularly from coastal regions, traded with several nations across the Bay of Bengal like Cambodia, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, even China and South America, and across the Arabian Sea like Arabia, Egypt and Persia. A panel found in Mohenjodaro depicts a sailing craft, and thousands of years later Ajanta murals also depict a sea-faring ship.
Around 500 CE, sextants and mariner’s compass were not unknown to ancient Indian shipbuilders and navigators. J.L. Reid, a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders, England, around the beginning of the 20th century wrote in the Bombay Gazetteer (Volume XIII, Part II, Appendix A) that "The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil, pointing north. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word MATSYA-YANTRA ("fish-machine"), which Molesworth calls "mariner's compass".

Fine arts

Main articles: Indian art and Indian painting

Music had a divine character and the Indian Goddess of learning, Saraswati, is always shown holding a veena. Likewise, Krishna is associated with the "bansuri", (flute) — a musical instrument which traveled throughout the world from India. Indian devotional songs and reciting influenced religious recitations in several eastern countries, where the style was adopted by Buddhists monks. India developed several types of musical instruments and forms of dancing, with delicate body movements and grace.
Paintings have remained the oldest art form as found in several cave paintings across the globe. Pre-historic cave paintings have been discovered in India in places like Bhimbetka, a UNESCO World Heritage site. In relatively recent times, rock paintings and carvings had significantly developed, and many such carvings have been found dating to the period of Emperor Ashoka. Indian influences may be seen in paintings at Bamyan, Afghanistan, and in Miran and Domko in Central Asia. Sometimes, they depict not only Buddha but Hindu deities such as Shiva, Ganesha and Surya.

Games and sports

Several games now familiar across the world originated in India: chess, ludo, snakes and ladders, and playing cards. The epic Mahabharata narrates an incident where a game called chaturanga was played between two groups of warring cousins. In some form or the other, the game continued to evolve into chess. H. J. R. Murry, in his book A History of Chess, concluded that "chess is a descendant of an Indian game played in the 7th century CE". The Encyclopædia Britannica states, "we find the best authorities agreeing that chess existed in India before it is known to have been played anywhere else".
The game of cards also developed in ancient India. Abul Fazal was a scholar in the court of Mughal emperor Akbar. His book, Ain-e-Akbari, which mirrors life of that time, records game of cards is of Indian origins. The Buddha games list, which dates back to the 6th or 5th century BCE, is the earliest list of games known.
Indian martial arts have been practiced for millennia. In particular, Kalaripayattu is native to the South Indian state of Kerala. Kalaripayattu consists of a series of intricate movements that train the body and mind.

CBSE TENTH MCQ

Q.1: In an experiment to test the pH of a given sample using pH paper, four students
recorded the following observations:
Sample Taken pH paper colour turned to
I Water Blue
II Dilute HCl Red
III Dilute NaoH Blue
IV Dilute Ethanoic Acid Orange
Which one of the above observations is incorrect?
1. I
2. II
3. III
4. IV

Q.2: Four students were given colourless liquids A, B, C, of water, Lemon Juice and
a mixture of water and lemon juice respectively. After testing these liquids with pH
paper, following sequences in colour change of pH paper were reported:
I Blue, Red and Green
II Orange, Green and Green
III Green, Red and Red
IV Red, Red and Green
The correct sequence of colours observed is
1. I
2. II
3. III
4. IV

Q.3: A Student tested the pH of distilled water using pH paper and observed green
colour. After adding a few drops of dilute NaOH solution, the pH was tested again.
The colour change now observed would be
1. Blue
2. Green
3. Red
4. Orange

Q.4: Four solutions I, II, III, and IV were given to a student to test their acidic or
basic nature by using a pH paper. He observed that the colour of pH paper turned to
Red, Blue, Green and Orange respectively when dipped in four solutions.
The correct conclusion made by the statement would be that:
1. I, II and III are acidic.
2. I and IV are acidic.
3. II, III and IV are basic
4. II and IV are basic

Q.5: A student was given four unknown colourless samples labeled A, B, C and D
and asked to test their pH using pH paper. He observed that the colour of pH paper
turned to light green, dark red, light orange and dark blue with samples A, B, C and D
respectively.
The correct sequence of increasing order of the pH value for samples is
1. A 2. A 3. C 4. B
Q.6: A blue litmus paper was first dipped in dil. HCl and then in dil. NaOH
solution. It was observed that the colour of the litmus paper
1. Changed to red
2. Changed first to red and then to Blue
3. Changed blue to colourless
4. Remained blue in both the solutions.

Q.7: A Student added dilute HCl to a test tube containing Zinc Granules and made
following observations:
I The Zinc surface became dull and black.
II A gas evolved which burnt with a pop sound
III The solution remained colourless
The correct observations are:
1. I and II
2. I and III
3. II and III
4. I, II and III

Q.8: A dilute solution of sodium carbonate was added to two test tubes – one
containing dil HCl (A) and the other containing dilute NaOH (B).
The correct observation was
1. A brown coloured gas librated in test tube A.
2. A brown coloured gas librated in test tube B.
3. A colourless gas librated in test tube A.
4. A colourless gas librated in test tube B.

Q.9: A student added dilute NaOH to a test tube containing Zinc granules and heated
the contents. It was observe that
1. A colourless gas evolved.
2. Bubbles started rising up in the test tube.
3 Solution remained colourless and transparent.
4. Zinc granules became red.

Q.10: Four Students I, II, III and IV were asked to examine the changes for blue and
red litmus paper strips with dilute HCl ( solution A) and dilute NaoH ( solution B).
The following observations were reported by the four students. The sign (−)
indicating no colour change.
Litmus A B Litmus A B Litmus A B Litmus A B
Blue − Red Blue Red − Blue Red Red Blue Blue Blue
Red − Blue Red − Blue Red Blue Blue Red Red Red
The correct observation would be of the student
1. I
2. II
3. III
4. IV
Q.11: Given below are the observations reported by four students I, II, III and IV for
the changes observed with dilute HCl or dilute NaoH and different materials.
Material Dil. HCl Dil. NaoH
(I) Moist Litmus paper Blue – Red Red to Blue
(II) Zinc Metal React at room
temperature
Does not react at room
temperature
(III) Zinc Metal on
heating
Liquid becomes milky Remains clear and
transparent
(IV) Solid sodium
bicarbonate
No reaction Brisk effervescence
The incorrectly reported observation is :
1. I
2. II
3. III
4. IV

Q.12: When a student added Zinc granules to dilute HCl, a colourless and odourless
gas was evolved, which was tested with a burning match stick, it was observed that:
1. The match stick continued to burn brilliantly.
2. The match stick burnt slowly with a blue flame.
3. The match stick extinguished and the gas burnt with pop sound.
4. The match stick burnt with an orange flame.

Q.13: The colour of concentrated solution of potassium dichromate in water is
1. Orange
2. Green
3. Purple
4. Blue

Q.14: The odour of sulphur dioxide gas is
1. Pungent
2. Odourless
3. Sweet Smelling
4. Foul Smelling

Q.15: A student mistakingly used a wet gas jar to collect sulphur dioxide. Which one
of the following tests of the gas is likely to fail?
1) Odour
2) Effect on acidified k2Cr2O7 solution
3) Solubility test
4) Effect on litmus paper

Q.16: After preparing sulphur dioxide gas in the laboratory, students are advised not
to throw the hot contents of the flask into the sink because the content would
1) damage the sink.
2) react violently with water in the sink.
3) cause pollution.
4) poisonous fumes.

Q.17: A student added zinc granules to copper sulphate solution taken in a test tube.
Out of the following. The correct observation(s) made by of the student will be
I. Zinc granules have no regular shape.
II. Zinc granules have silvery grey colour.
III. The colour of zinc granules changed to brownish black.
1) I only
2) II only
3) III only
4) I, II and III

Q.18: Four strips labelled A,B,C and D along with their corresponding colours are
shown below. Which of these could be made up of aluminum?
A B C D
Reddish Dark Blackish Silvery
Brown Grey Grey White
1) A
2) B
3) C
4) D

Q.19: A copper sulphate solution is added to a test tube containing a cleaned iron nail.
The correct description regarding the deposition of copper on the iron nail would be
that it starts depositing.
1) at the tip of the nail.
2) from the head of the nail.
3) in the middle of the nail.
4) anywhere on the nail.

Q.20: A student is asked to add a tea spoon full of solid sodium bicarbonate to a test tube containing approximately 3 mL of acetic acid. He observed that the solid sodium
bicarbonate
1) floats on the surface of acetic acid.
2) remains suspended in the acetic acid.
3) Settles down in the test tube.
4) reacts with acetic acid and a clear solution is obtained.

Q.21: The chemical used for carrying out the starch test on a leaf is :
1) Iodine crystals
2) Iodine powder
3) Iodine solution

Q.22: 5g of raisins were placed in distilled water for 24 hours. The weight of soaked
raisins was found to be 7g. The correct percentage of water observed by raisins is
1) 20 %
2) 25 %
3) 40 %
4) 45 %

Q.23: A student covered a leaf from a destarched plant with a black paper strip and
kept it in the garden outside his house in fresh air. In the evening, he tested the
covered portion of the leaf for presence of starch. The student was trying to show that
1) CO2 is given out during respiration
2) CO2 is necessary for photosynthesis
3) Chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
4) Light is necessary for photosynthesis

Q.24: The best results for the experiment, that light is necessary for photosynthesis,
would be yielded by using leaves from a plant kept for over twenty four hours
1) in a pitch dark room
2) in a dark room with the table lamp switched on.
3) outside in the garden
4) outside in the garden, covered by a glass case.

Q.25: The correct sequence, out of the following options, for focusing a slide of
epidermal peel of a leaf under a microscope to show the stomatal apparatus is
I. Observe under low power.
II. Adjust mirror to get maximum light.
III. Place the slide on the stage.
IV. Focus under high power
1. II, III, I, IV
2. I, II, III, IV
3. III, II, IV, I

Q.26: The part of leaf commonly used for preparing the slide of stomata is
1) leaf margin
2) leaf apex
3) leaf epidermis
4) leaf peliole

Q.27: A student wanted to decolourise a leaf. He should boil the leaf in
1) alcohol
2) water
3) KoH solution
4 glycerine
4. III, II, IV, I

Q.28: In order to prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel of observing stomata, the
chemicals used for staining and mounting respectively are
1) Saffranin and glycerine
2) lodine and glycerine
3) lodine and saffranin
4) glycerine and saffranin

Q.29: Which of the following precautions should be kept in mind while preparing a
temporary slide of an epidermal peel of a leaf.?
I Wash off extra stain with distilled water
II Clean slide and cover slip before use
III Put only drop of glycerine on the cover slip
IV Pull out a thin leaf peel
V Use filter paper to wipe the stained peel.
1. I, II, III
2. I, II, IV
3. III, IV, V
4. II, IV, V

Q.30: An apparatus was set up to show that germinating seeds release carbon-dioxide
during respiration. Which observation out of the following should be made to
get correct results?
1. Carefully observe if there is any change in the size of germinating seeds.
2. See if the KoH in the test tube has absorbed CO2 released by germinating
seeds.
3. Check the change in the level of water present in the beaker.
4. Check if CO2 is coming into the delivery tube.

Q.31Nuclei can be clearly seen in a well prepared slide of epidermal peel of a leaf in
the
1. guard cells only
2. eqidermal cells only
3. guard cells as well as epidermal cells
4. stomata, guard cells and epidermal cells.

Q.32 To set up the experiment to show that light is necessary for photosynthesis,
experimental leaves should be taken for use from
1. any flowering plant
2. newly emerged sapling
3. destarched potted plant
4. healthy plant growing on the ground.

Q.33: The seeds used in the experiment to show that CO2 is given out during
respiration are
1. dry seeds
2. boiled seeds
3. crushed seeds
4. germinating seeds.

Q.34: Under the high power objective of a microscope, an epidermal peel of a leaf
shows.
1. stomata surrounding many guard cells
2. stomata surrounded by a pair of guard cells each.
3. stomata surrounded by several epidermal cells.
4. stomata surrounded by several guard cells each.

Q.35: A slide showing several amoebae was given to a student and was asked to focus
the amoeba undergoing binary fission. What will the student look for to correctly
focus on a dividing amoeba?
1. An amoeba with many pseudopodia and a small nucleus.
2. A rounded amoeba with rounded nucleus.
3. An amoeba covered by a cyst and many nuclei
4. An amoeba with elongated nucleus and a constriction in the middle.